Forensic Science International

Editorial Board

2010-07-15

Evidence-based survey of the elimination rates of ethanol from blood with applications in forensic casework

Alan Wayne Jones — 2010-03-22

Abstract: Reliable information about the elimination rate of alcohol (ethanol) from blood is often needed in forensic science and legal medicine when alcohol-related crimes, such as drunken driving or drug-related sexual assault are investigated. A blood sample for forensic analysis might not be taken until several hours after an offence was committed. The courts usually want to know the suspect's blood-alcohol concentration (BAC) at some earlier time, such as the time of driving. Making these back calculations or retrograde extrapolations of BAC in criminal cases has many proponents and critics. Ethanol is eliminated from the body mainly by oxidative metabolism in the liver by Class I isoenzymes of alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH). Ethanol is an example of a drug for which the Michaelis–Menten pharmacokinetic model applies and the Michaelis constant (km) for Class I ADH is at a BAC of 2–10mg/100mL. This means that the enzyme is saturated with substrate after the first few drinks and that zero-order kinetics is adequate to describe the declining phase of the BAC profile in most forensic situations (BAC>20mg/100mL). After drinking on an empty stomach, the elimination rate of ethanol from blood falls within the range 10–15mg/100mL/h. In non-fasted subjects the rate of elimination tends to be in the range 15–20mg/100mL/h. In alcoholics during detoxification, because activity of microsomal enzyme (CYP2E1) is boosted, the ethanol elimination rate might be 25–35mg/100mL/h. The slope of the BAC declining phase is slightly steeper in women compared with men, which seems to be related to gender differences in liver weight in relation to lean body mass. The present evidence-based review suggests that the physiological range of ethanol elimination rates from blood is from 10 to 35mg/100mL/h. In moderate drinkers 15mg/100mL/h remains a good average value for the population, whereas in apprehended drivers 19mg/100mL/h is more appropriate, since many of these individuals are binge drinkers or alcoholics. In preparing this article, a large number of peer-reviewed publications were scrutinized. Only those meeting certain standards in experimental design, dose of alcohol and blood-sampling protocol were used. The results presented can hopefully serve as best-practice guidelines when questions arise in criminal and civil litigation about the elimination rate of ethanol from blood in humans.

Measurement of 9mm cartridge case external temperatures and its forensic application

B. Gashi, M.R. Edwards, P.A. Sermon, L. Courtney, D. Harrison, Y. Xu — 2010-05-24

Abstract: The external temperature of the cartridge cases of 9mm parabellum ammunition during the firing sequence was measured by a series of methods. Using a thermal imaging camera was the most successful method and showed that aluminium alloy cases reached higher temperatures than did brass cases. Peak temperatures for brass cases were 336K at the case mouth after 1.2ms and 331K at the case base after 2ms. Corresponding temperatures for aluminium alloy cases were 363K at the mouth after 0.8ms and 372K at the base after 1.2ms. These times at temperature would not be sufficient to destroy any DNA residues left on the case. Measurement of the DNA of fired cartridges showed that DNA deposited on the cartridge case before firing was not affected by the temperatures reached during the firing sequence. Estimates of temperatures to be found in pure aluminium and mild steel cases were made, these indicating that pure aluminium would give higher temperatures than aluminium alloy and steel a lower temperature than for brass.

Environmental nicotine contamination in latent fingermarks from smoker contacts and passive smoking

M. Benton, M.J. Chua, F. Gu, F. Rowell, J. Ma — 2010-04-15

Abstract: Hydrophobic silica nanopowder has been used as an effective latent fingermark development agent and subsequently as an enhancement agent in the surface-assisted laser desorption/ionisation-time of flight (SALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry for analysis of fingermark components. The technique has been used in the detection of nicotine and cotinine in the fingermarks of smokers. In order to have confidence in concluding that the nicotine in such samples is indicative of cigarette usage, it is necessary to establish that contamination by environmental contact or from hand to hand contact with smokers or from passive smoking does not lead to false identification of non-smokers as smokers. To investigate this possibility, the background level of nicotine in fingermark material from a number of commonly used places was determined. In addition, a series of experiments was carried out to assess the extent to which nicotine can be transferred through handshakes and finger transfer as well as touching of door handles. The rate of loss of nicotine from latent fingermarks was also assessed over a 24-h period under ambient laboratory conditions. Finally, a laboratory-based model system was evaluated to ascertain the possible transport of nicotine in cigarette smoke from a source to adjacent areas to simulate cross-contamination of a non-smoker by passive exposure. It was observed that person-to-person transfer from a smoker to a non-smoker can occur following handshakes but at low levels and that passive cross-contamination from contact with surfaces is possible under simulated conditions. However, levels of nicotine in the wider environment were found to be too low for detection using this technique which may reflect the half-life of nicotine in latent fingermarks which was about 11h. Likewise, transfer via smoke is possible to objects within about 0.1m of the cigarette but it is unlikely that significant secondary nicotine contamination will occur on the faces and hands of adjacent non-smokers.

Age estimation using microfocus X-ray computed tomography of lower premolars

H. Aboshi, T. Takahashi, T. Komuro — 2010-04-12

Abstract: The dental pulp, like other parts of the body, shows age-related changes. The aim of this study was to develop an age estimation method based on the ratio of the three-dimensional volume of the pulp chamber compared to the total tooth.Pulp chamber volumes were calculated using microfocus X-ray computed tomography (SMX-130CT, Shimadzu, Co., Kyoto, Japan) of the three-dimensional digital radiographic images of teeth. The specimens used in this study were 50 lower first and 50 lower second premolar teeth without caries or other abnormalities, obtained from patients in six 10-year age groups (age range 20–78 years). Each specimen was imaged by a micro-CT to reconstruct the three-dimensional structure. Using the reconstructed images, the tooth and pulp volumes at four levels (crown area (L1); coronal one third (L2); midroot (L3), and apical one third of the root (L4)) were measured. Mean values of the pulp–tooth volume ratio (PTVR1–4) were compared between the six age groups and these values were used as the variables for the multiple regression analysis.The coronal one third of the root (L2) showed the greatest ratio values, followed by L3, L4 and L1 in all age groups. Morphological changes of the pulp cavity in different age groups were observed. PTVR gradually reduced in value with increasing age, with the steepest reduction occurring in the 20–50 age range, and most noticeably at the L2 level.The coefficients of determination by multiple regression analysis for four variables were 0.635 for lower first and 0.703 for lower second premolars. Among the variables used for estimating age by this method, only PTVR2 showed a significant correlation at P<0.001. To determine the variables with the most significant contribution and to optimize the models, stepwise regression method was applied with inclusion level at P<0.05. Only the variable of PTVR2 contributed significantly to the fit for lower first premolar whereas the two variables of PTVR1 and PTVR2 for lower second premolars. The coefficients of determination for the chosen variables were 0.625 for lower first and 0.698 for lower second premolars. Pulp–tooth volume ratio is an age-dependent variable that can be used to estimate age with reasonable accuracy.

An investigation into the behaviour of air rifle pellets in ballistic gel and their interaction with bone

G. Wightman, J. Beard, R. Allison — 2010-04-22

Abstract: Although air weapons are considerably lower in power than other firearms, there is increasing concern that serious injuries can result from their misuse. The present study was therefore carried out to improve understanding of the terminal ballistic behaviour of air rifle pellets. Pellets were fired into ballistic gel under a variety of conditions.The pellets penetrated further than anticipated from their low cross-sectional density, and Bloom number was not necessarily a good guide to gel behaviour. Pellet penetration into the gel decreased with increasing gel concentration, and appeared to be linear at higher concentrations. Pointed pellets penetrated up to 50% further than rounded pellets. Power and range affect penetration, but other factors are also important, and power alone is not a simple guide to potential penetration.Test firings were also carried out firing pellets into ballistic gel that contained sections of animal bone. Computed tomography (CT) and visual observation were employed to record the interactions. CT scanning showed potential as a tool for examining pellet damage. The bone appeared to be undamaged, but the pellets were severely deformed on impact. If the pellet strikes the bone at an angle, less energy is absorbed by the impact and the pellet fragments may ricochet and cause further damage in the gel. A tentative model is proposed for estimating the energy absorbed by the impact.

A local technique based on vectorized surfaces for craniofacial reconstruction

Françoise M. Tilotta, Joan A. Glaunès, Frédéric J.P. Richard, Yves Rozenholc — 2010-04-26

Abstract: In this paper, we focus on the automation of facial reconstruction. Since they consider the whole head as the object of interest, usual reconstruction techniques are global and involve a large number of parameters to be estimated. We present a local technique which aims at reaching a good trade-off between bias and variance following the paradigm of non-parametric statistics. The estimation is localized on patches delimited by surface geodesics between anatomical points of the skull. The technique relies on a continuous representation of the individual surfaces embedded in the vectorial space of extended normal vector fields. This allows to compute deformations and averages of surfaces. It consists in estimating the soft-tissue surface over patches. Using a homogeneous database described in , we obtain results on the chin and nasal regions with an average error below 1mm, outperforming the global reconstruction techniques.

Moisture can be the dominant environmental parameter governing cadaver decomposition in soil

David O. Carter, David Yellowlees, Mark Tibbett — 2010-04-20

Abstract: Forensic taphonomy involves the use of decomposition to estimate postmortem interval (PMI) or locate clandestine graves. Yet, cadaver decomposition remains poorly understood, particularly following burial in soil. Presently, we do not know how most edaphic and environmental parameters, including soil moisture, influence the breakdown of cadavers following burial and alter the processes that are used to estimate PMI and locate clandestine graves. To address this, we buried juvenile rat (Rattus rattus) cadavers (∼18g wet weight) in three contrasting soils from tropical savanna ecosystems located in Pallarenda (sand), Wambiana (medium clay), or Yabulu (loamy sand), Queensland, Australia. These soils were sieved (2mm), weighed (500g dry weight), calibrated to a matric potential of -0.01 megapascals (MPa), -0.05 MPa, or -0.3 MPa (wettest to driest) and incubated at 22°C. Measurements of cadaver decomposition included cadaver mass loss, carbon dioxide-carbon (CO2-C) evolution, microbial biomass carbon (MBC), protease activity, phosphodiesterase activity, ninhydrin-reactive nitrogen (NRN) and soil pH. Cadaver burial resulted in a significant increase in CO2-C evolution, MBC, enzyme activities, NRN and soil pH. Cadaver decomposition in loamy sand and sandy soil was greater at lower matric potentials (wetter soil). However, optimal matric potential for cadaver decomposition in medium clay was exceeded, which resulted in a slower rate of cadaver decomposition in the wettest soil. Slower cadaver decomposition was also observed at high matric potential (-0.3 MPa). Furthermore, wet sandy soil was associated with greater cadaver decomposition than wet fine-textured soil. We conclude that gravesoil moisture content can modify the relationship between temperature and cadaver decomposition and that soil microorganisms can play a significant role in cadaver breakdown. We also conclude that soil NRN is a more reliable indicator of gravesoil than soil pH.

Cocaine and benzoylecgonine concentrations in fluorinated plasma samples of drivers under suspicion of driving under influence

F. Musshoff, B. Madea — 2010-04-26

Abstract: Due to an in vitro decomposition of cocaine (COC), usually an analytical detection in unstabilized blood taking systems is impossible and for this reason the main metabolite benzoylecgonine (BZE) is determined. In a few regions in Germany the local authorities use systems containing sodium fluoride for taking a blood sample. Caused by inhibition of esterases in the taken sample COC is still detectable in blood samples.Cases of driving under the influence (DUI) with positive findings for COC and/or BZE were evaluated and substance concentrations in plasma were correlated with documented deficiencies in the psycho-physical performance.In 51.5% of all cases positive for cocaine-like substances besides BZE a positive result was also given for COC. If both substances were found (mean COC concentration 0.836mg/L) the concentration of BZE was significantly higher (mean 0.669mg/L) compared to cases with a single detection of BE (mean 0.209mg/L) (p=0.001). In 72 cases without any detection of further drugs cocaine users seemed rather excited and stimulated towards intervening police officers, in particular when COC was present in the blood (17.8%). Also in the medical investigation reports a rather stimulative effect (25% vs. 3.6% sedated) was to be registered. Whereas with a sole determination of BZE, a stimulated (19%) as well as a sedated impression (14.9%) was described. Definite concentration–effect relations could not be recognized. Indeed, more peculiarities were to be registered with the simultaneous detection of COC than with a sole BZE determination.The determination of COC and the differences in the BZE concentration can be explained by the fact that the simultaneous detection of both substances is indicative for of a consumption shortly before the blood sampling. A sole detection of BZE is more likely indicative for a consumption already some time ago. Therefore, in the first case one would rather suggest an acute intoxication phase. A determination of BZE without COC is more likely indicative for a transition to the drug-induced exhaustion phase which is also to be expected after the consumption of COC. The absence of COC can be seen within the scope of a validity check as an indication of a possible exhaustion reaction. A use of fluoride stabilized blood sampling systems is advised. This makes it easier to investigate the state of intoxication or to appraise the temporal connection between COC consumption and incident or blood sampling.

GC–MS and GC–IRD analysis of ring and side chain regioisomers of ethoxyphenethylamines related to the controlled substances MDEA, MDMMA and MBDB

Abdullah M. Al-Hossaini, Tamer Awad, Jack DeRuiter, C. Randall Clark — 2010-04-28

Abstract: Three regioisomeric 3, 4-methylenedioxyphenethylamines having the same molecular weight and major mass spectral fragments of equal mass have been reported as drugs of abuse in recent years. These compounds are 3,4-methylenedioxy-N-ethylamphetamine (MDEA), 3,4-methylenedioxy-N,N-dimethylamphetamine (MDMMA), and N-methyl-1-(3,4-methylenedioxyphenyl)-2-butanamine (MBDB). Ring substituted ethoxy phenethylamines having the same side chain are compounds with an isobaric relationship to these controlled drug substances, all have molecular weight of 207 and major fragment ions in their electron ionization mass spectra at m/z 72 and 135/136. The three methylenedioxyphenethylamines were resolved from the ethoxyphenethylamines by capillary gas chromatography using an Rxi-50 stationary phase. The trifluoroacetyl, pentafluoropropionyl and heptafluorobutryl derivatives of the secondary amines were evaluated in GC–MS studies. The mass spectra for these derivatives were significantly individualized and the resulting unique fragment ions allowed for specific side chain identification. The perfluoroacyl derivatives showed reasonable resolution on a non-polar stationary phase such as Rtx-1. GC–IRD studies provided structure-IR spectra relationships used for the discrimination of the three target drugs (MDEA, MDMMA and MBDB) from the other nine ring substituted ethoxyphenethylamine regioisomers.

The differentiation of fibre- and drug type Cannabis seedlings by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry and chemometric tools

Julian Broséus, Frédéric Anglada, Pierre Esseiva — 2010-04-26

Abstract: Cannabis cultivation in order to produce drugs is forbidden in Switzerland. Thus, law enforcement authorities regularly ask forensic laboratories to determinate cannabis plant's chemotype from seized material in order to ascertain that the plantation is legal or not. As required by the EU official analysis protocol the THC rate of cannabis is measured from the flowers at maturity. When laboratories are confronted to seedlings, they have to lead the plant to maturity, meaning a time consuming and costly procedure. This study investigated the discrimination of fibre type from drug type Cannabis seedlings by analysing the compounds found in their leaves and using chemometrics tools. 11 legal varieties allowed by the Swiss Federal Office for Agriculture and 13 illegal ones were greenhouse grown and analysed using a gas chromatograph interfaced with a mass spectrometer. Compounds that show high discrimination capabilities in the seedlings have been identified and a support vector machines (SVMs) analysis was used to classify the cannabis samples. The overall set of samples shows a classification rate above 99% with false positive rates less than 2%. This model allows then discrimination between fibre and drug type Cannabis at an early stage of growth. Therefore it is not necessary to wait plants’ maturity to quantify their amount of THC in order to determine their chemotype. This procedure could be used for the control of legal (fibre type) and illegal (drug type) Cannabis production.

Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate in Urine and Serum: Additional Data Supporting Current Cut-Off Recommendations

H. Andresen, N. Sprys, A. Schmoldt, A. Mueller, S. Iwersen-Bergmann — 2010-04-26

Abstract: Besides the use of Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate (GHB) as a recreational drug, use of GHB as an agent in drug-facilitated crime should also be considered. In these cases, there is often a delay of several hours from the incident to collection of the samples. As GHB has a very short plasma half-life, the window of detection is small and in the majority of these specimens, levels of GHB are low. Because GHB is naturally occurring in humans, discrimination between endogenous and exogenous GHB is complicated, particularly in those samples with low concentrations. In this study, endogenous GHB levels of 50 serum and 50 urine samples were determined by GC-MS after conversion to trimethyl-silyl-derivatives. Concentrations in serum ranged from 0.62 to 3.24mg/L (mean=1.14mg/L; median=0.97mg/L) and from 0.64 to 4.20mg/L (mean=1.21mg/L; median=0.96mg/L) in urine. Based on this substantial data, the current suggested lower cut-off of 4mg/L in ante mortem serum samples could be confirmed. For urine, we propose the lower cut-off of 6mg/L instead of 10mg/L to avoid false negative interpretation.

Subdural hemorrhage, intradural hemorrhage and hypoxia in the pediatric and perinatal post mortem: Are they related? An observational study combining the use of post mortem pathology and magnetic resonance imaging

Marta C. Cohen, Alan Sprigg, Elspeth H. Whitby — 2010-05-31

Abstract: Background and purpose: Controversies exist over the causes of intradural hemorrhages (IDH), subdural hemorrhages (SDH) and hypoxia.SDH is a recognised finding at perinatal and pediatric autopsy. We describe the occurrence of IDH, SDH, and hypoxia in these deaths using a combined approach of post mortem magnetic resonance imaging (PM MRI), autopsy examination and histology.Material and methods: Forty-two cases (1 day to 4 years, mean 6.9 months) underwent PM MRI and autopsy. Two further children (8 and 32 month of age) underwent autopsy only. MRI was conducted with a 1.5 T Magnet with fast spin-echo T2 weighted images, the images were assessed for the presence of SDH, hypoxia and structural abnormalities. Hypoxia was defined by a low signal in the ventrolateral thalami and peri-rolandic regions on MRI. Edema was interpreted as early acute hypoxia. On histology, hypoxia was defined by the presence of hypoxic neurons.Results: IDH was seen histologically in 35/39 cases: diffuse in 17 and focal in 18. On the PM MRI focal IDH was not distinguished, and DIDH was only retrospectively suggested as a low signal around the venous sinuses or prominent venous sinuses, predominantly in the posterior falx and tentorium. Confident identification on the MRI was not possible. 12/17 cases with DIDH were less than a week old.SDH was seen in 11 cases on PM MRI. SDH was seen at autopsy in the same 11 cases and in the 2 cases where no PM MRI was performed. DIDH was seen in all these cases on histological examination (except in 1 case where the dura had not been sampled). Acute hypoxia was present in 14/42 cases both on histology and MRI. In 1 case changes of hypoxia were seen on MRI only. In 7 cases the hypoxia was seen on histology only. 12/13 cases with SDH had features of hypoxia.Of the cases with DIDH on histology 14/17 had hypoxia (on MRI, histology, or both).Conclusion: IDH and SDH are frequent findings in the perinatal and pediatric autopsy. SDH was associated with a DIDH and was also frequently associated with hypoxia. Focal IDH was not identified at the PM MRI; it was associated with hypoxia (on MRI and/or on histology) in less than a quarter of cases. Our results exhibit an association between IDH, SDH and hypoxia in children dying of natural causes. The highest incidence is seen in the perinatal period.

Trauma potential and ballistic parameters of cal. 9mm P.A. dummy launchers

Matthias Frank, Britta Bockholdt, Klaus-Peter Philipp, Axel Ekkernkamp — 2010-04-20

Abstract: Introduction: Blank cartridge actuated dummy launching devices are used by migratory bird hunters to train dogs to retrieve downed birds. The devices create a loud noise while simultaneously propelling a hard foam dummy for retrieval. A newly developed dummy launcher is based on a modified cal. 9mm P.A. blank handgun with an extension tube pinned and welded to the barrel imitation. Currently, there are no experimental investigations on the ballistic background and trauma potential of these uncommon shooting devices.Methods: An experimental test set-up consisting of a photoelectric infrared light barrier was used for measurement of the velocity of hard foam dummies propelled with an automatic dummy launcher.Ballistic parameters of the dummies and an aluminium sleeve as improvised projectile (kinetic energy (E), impulse (p), energy density (E′) and threshold velocity () to cause penetrating wounds as a function of cross-sectional density (S)) were calculated.Results: The average velocity () of the dummies was measured 25.71m/s exerting an average impulse (p) of 3.342Ns. The average kinetic energy (E) was calculated 43.04J with an average energy density (E′) of 0.069J/mm2. The average velocity () of the aluminium sleeves as improvised projectiles was measured 79.58m/s exerting an average impulse (p) of 2.228Ns. The average kinetic energy (E) of the aluminium sleeves was calculated as 88.70J with an average energy density (E′) of 0.282J/mm2.Conclusion: The energy delivered by these shooting devices is high enough to cause relevant injuries. The absence of skin penetration must not mislead the emergency physician or forensic expert into neglecting the potential damage from these devices.

Extraction of diatoms from (cotton) clothing for forensic comparisons

Stefan Uitdehaag, Aleksandar Dragutinovic, Irene Kuiper — 2010-04-20

Abstract: Diatoms in clothing can be used to determine contact with surface water and contact with a specific water source, which can help link suspects to crime scenes. However, for the study of diatoms it is imperative that they are first extracted from the clothing under investigation. In this study we tested three methods for extracting diatoms from cotton clothing: rinsing with water (RW), rinsing with ethanol (RE) and the dissolution of cotton with nitric and sulphuric acid (DI). The DI method produced the highest average yield and can be used to determine contact with water. The RE method extracted reproducible numbers of diatoms from two different T-shirts and the resulting species compositions were similar to their relevant reference water samples. Therefore, we present rinsing with ethanol as an effective extraction method for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of diatoms in (cotton) clothing.

Postmortem serum erythropoietin level as a marker of survival time in injury deaths

L. Quan, B.-L. Zhu, T. Ishikawa, T. Michiue, D. Zhao, M. Ogawa, H. Maeda — 2010-04-30

Abstract: Circulating erythropoietin (EPO) is mainly derived from the kidneys, and the serum concentration is rapidly increased in response to anemia and hypoxia. The present study investigated postmortem serum EPO levels in injury death cases (n=185, postmortem time<48h, survival time <7 days: sharp instrument injury, n=44 and blunt injury, n=141) with regard to survival time, compared with C-reactive protein (CRP) as a marker of inflammation. Serum levels of both markers were independent of postmortem time. A survival time-dependent increase in serum EPO up to about 100mU/ml was seen within 6h of sharp instrument injury to the heart or a proximal major vessel (thoracic aorta or subclavian/carotid artery) and blunt injury with massive hemorrhages, showing high correlations (r=0.957 and r=0.822, respectively, P<0.0001), whereas the increase was insignificant (P>0.05) for sharp instrument injury to a peripheral vessel or lungs/abdominal viscera and blunt injury with minor hemorrhages over the same survival period. A further increase (>100mU/ml) was often detected in cases of death about 24h after blunt injury, irrespective of the type of injury. In contrast, a gradual increase in serum CRP level was seen about 12–24h after blunt injury. These findings suggest that serum EPO can be a marker for investigating survival time within 6h of major injury involving acute massive hemorrhaging.

Isotope fractionation during precipitation of methamphetamine HCl and discrimination of seized forensic samples

Gabrielle E. David, Anne Coxon, Russell D. Frew, Alan R. Hayman — 2010-04-30

Abstract: Methamphetamine is a widely abused illicit drug. Increasingly, studies have focused on stable isotope analysis by isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) to link samples of methamphetamine synthesized together or from the same source of precursor. For this reason, it is important to understand potential sources of isotope fractionation that could cause variability in forensic data sets. In this study, methamphetamine free base samples were synthesized from (−)-ephedrine HCl using the HI/red phosphorus synthetic route and then precipitated as HCl salts by bubbling with HCl gas. The entire sample did not precipitate when first bubbled with gas, and multiple precipitation steps were required. Fractions of precipitate were individually analyzed for δ13C, δ15N and δ2H by IRMS. Both δ15N and δ2H were found to become more negative, with the heavy isotopes depleted, in successive fractions of precipitate. Homogenizing the precipitate fractions together could eliminate this fractionation. However, in a clandestine situation this fractionation could lead to greater than expected δ15N and δ2H variability between illicit samples of methamphetamine HCl that have been synthesized from the same sample of ephedrine. This needs to be taken into account when interpreting forensic IRMS data. We also present an analysis of four separate seized case lots of methamphetamine HCl, taking into account the possible sources of fractionation and available intelligence information.

Stability tests of zopiclone in whole blood

Gunnel H. Nilsson, Fredrik C. Kugelberg, Robert Kronstrand, Johan Ahlner — 2010-04-30

Abstract: Zopiclone is a common drug in forensic cases and it is frequently analyzed in biological materials using different analytical methods. Zopiclone is unstable in certain solvents and depending on storage conditions unstable in biological fluids; however its stability in human whole blood has not yet been established in detail. Therefore, the following investigation was performed to study the stability of zopiclone in both spiked and authentic human blood. First, spiked blood samples were stored at −20°C, 5°C and 20°C and the degradation of zopiclone was investigated. Second, authentic and spiked blood samples were stored at 5°C and differences in zopiclone stability were studied. Third, processed sample stability and effect of freeze/thaw cycles were evaluated. Analyses were performed by GC-NPD and zopiclone concentrations were measured at selected time intervals. The study showed that zopiclone degrades in human blood depending on time and temperature and may not be detected after long-term storage. 2-amino-5-chloropyridine was identified as the primary degradation product from zopiclone. At refrigerator temperature zopiclone was stable less than 1 month in both spiked and authentic human blood samples. The best storage condition was at −20°C even at short storage times, as freeze–thaw had no influence on the results. In butyl acetate extracts, zopiclone was stable at least 2 days when kept in the autosampler at ambient temperature. We conclude that preanalytical factors have great impact on analytical results and should be addressed when interpreting whole blood zopiclone concentrations.

Postmortem data related to drug and toxic substance use in the Federal District, Brazil, from 2006 to 2008

Emanuele Lazzaretti Cordova Campelo, Eloisa Dutra Caldas — 2010-04-30

Abstract: This study describes the substances involved in fatal events that were investigated by the Forensic Medicine Institute of the Federal District, Brazil, from 2006 to 2008. The presence of pesticides was investigated in liver or stomach content samples by thin-layer chromatography; amphetamines, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, tetra-hydro-cannabinol (THC), cocaine and opioids were analyzed in urine samples by immunoassay. A total of 8736 exams were performed, of which 21.7% tested positive for at least one compound investigated. Men were involved in over 90% of positive cases; most individuals were between the ages of 18 and 30. Alcohol was detected in 47.4% of the blood samples, with over 30% presenting BAC levels higher than 1g/L. Cocaine was present in 21.6%, and THC in 17.5% of the urine samples analyzed. Pesticides were found in 13.3% of the 188 cases investigated, mostly aldicarb, which is the main component of chumbinho, an illegal rodenticide available in the country. Among pharmaceutical drugs, benzodiazepines were the most detected, with 29 samples testing positive (4.6% of the samples analyzed). Most of the individuals who died from traumatism or hypovolemia tested positive for alcohol. Death from intoxication/poisoning corresponded to 1.8% of all positive cases, mainly from the ingestion of pesticides. This is the first Brazilian study reporting data on toxic chemicals from postmortem material. The results confirm other epidemiological data that indicate pesticide as the major cause of fatal poisonings in Brazil.

Detection of JWH-018 metabolites in smoking mixture post-administration urine

Tim Sobolevsky, Ilya Prasolov, Grigory Rodchenkov — 2010-04-30

Abstract: Smoking mixtures containing the cannabimimetic indoles may still be available over-the-counter in several countries. Due to the high affinity of these compounds to the cannabinoid receptors, their effective dose is lower than that of the marijuana products resulting in a low concentration of the excreted metabolites accompanied by a higher psychoactive potency. Up to now the in vivo metabolism of the cannabimimetic indoles seems to be insufficiently investigated and no data have been published on an assay of JWH-018 in urine.In this publication the urinary metabolites of JWH-018 are reported. Using gas and liquid chromatography combined with tandem mass spectrometry two main monohydroxylated metabolites were identified in the forensic urine samples. Based on the differences in their electron ionization MS/MS spectra it is supposed that one is formed by hydroxylation of the indole ring whilst the other by hydroxylation of the N-alkyl chain. The main metabolites are almost completely glucuroconjugated, whereas minor ones (N-despentyl hydroxy-, carboxy-, dihydroxy-, and reduced di- and trihydroxy metabolites) were also present in the free fraction. The parent compound was not detected in urine.

The impact of random natural variability on aspartic acid racemization ratios in enamel from different types of human teeth

R.C. Griffin, K.E.H. Penkman, H. Moody, M.J. Collins — 2010-05-12

Abstract: Previous research has indicated that the extent of amino acid racemization in enamel varies systematically between tooth types within the dentition. This phenomenon was suggested to be due to differences in temperature at various locations within the mouth. This paper presents an analysis of aspartic acid racemization in a fraction of the enamel proteins which should be particularly susceptible to deviations in temperature, in order to assess the impact of temperature on variability in racemization values. The acid soluble fraction of the enamel was analysed from 129 human teeth of different tooth types and from both living individuals and archaeological skeletal remains. Samples were collected by acid etching of the enamel to isolate proteins located a small distance below the enamel surface. For each population, the racemization values for different tooth types were compared to identify any possible systematic variation. Where multiple teeth were analysed from the one individual, the age estimates produced for the different teeth were compared to obtain an indication of the overall level of variability in racemization values. No systematic variation in the extent of racemization between different tooth types was observed in any of the populations analysed. There appeared instead to be a high level of random variability in the extent of racemization, with substantial differences observed between age estimates produced from multiple teeth from the one individual.The results of this study suggest that the differences in racemization values observed here are due to random variations and not the temperature at different locations within the mouth.

Estimation of illicit drugs consumption by wastewater analysis in Paris area (France)

Sara Karolak, Thomas Nefau, Emilie Bailly, Audrey Solgadi, Yves Levi — 2010-05-06

Abstract: Illicit drugs consumption is actually an important public health concern that needs to be well defined to be managed. A new method, expressed as sewage epidemiology has been proposed by Daughton and developed by Zuccato. This method involves estimating the consumption from the measurement of drug residues in sewage. Several studies have been carried out, leading to an assessment of drugs consumption in some European countries. This work, carried out in Paris area (France) brings new data to this assessment and allows a comparison of cocaine and MDMA consumptions with European estimations.Four wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have been retained for the study, taking into account biological treatment, volume capacity, geographic location and social environment. Cocaine and its major metabolite benzoylecgonine (BZE), amphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) and buprenorphine were measured in raw water and WWTP effluent using HPLC–MS/MS after SPE extraction. Amphetamine was rarely detected. Cocaine and BZE were quantified at levels from 5 to 282ngL−1 and 15 to 849ngL−1, respectively. MDMA and buprenorphine concentrations remained under 20ngL−1. Cocaine consumption was estimated from cocaine or BZE concentrations measured in raw water and the results showed significant difference in drug taking during week or weekend. The estimated doses observed in this study are lower than those reported for others countries, especially Spain and Italy. MDMA consumption was estimated at lower levels than cocaine.

Analysis of time of closure of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis using computed tomography

Richard B. Bassed, C. Briggs, Olaf H. Drummer — 2010-05-07

Abstract: Current knowledge concerning closure of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis is inadequate for age estimation purposes in that of the few detailed studies conducted, these demonstrate considerable variation concerning the age at which the synchondrosis commences and completes fusion, thus creating uncertainty for forensic investigators who may use this developmental feature for age determinations. The aim of the present study was to determine the sequence and timing of closure of the spheno-occipital synchondrosis for a large sample of a modern Australian population to assess if this age marker is a useful tool for age estimation for individuals around the age of 18 years. The sample consisted of 666 individuals in the age range 15–25 years, who were admitted to the Victorian Institute of Forensic Medicine (VIFM) mortuary and who had undergone routine full body multi-slice CT imaging. Results show that fusion was well underway by the age of 15 years and was complete by 17 years. Fusion begins superiorly and progresses inferiorly. Persistence of a scar at the site of fusion was demonstrated through to age 25 years. After the age of 16 years there was no significant difference in progress of fusion between males and females. The study showed that this age marker is of limited value for age estimations around the age of 18 years in this population.

Computer assisted photo-anthropometric analyses of full-face and profile facial images

Josh P. Davis, Tim Valentine, Robert E. Davis — 2010-05-31

Abstract: Expert witnesses using facial comparison techniques are regularly required to disambiguate cases of disputed identification in CCTV images and other photographic evidence in court. This paper describes a novel software-assisted photo-anthropometric facial landmark identification system, DigitalFace tested against a database of 70 full-face and profile images of young males meeting a similar description. The system produces 37 linear and 25 angular measurements across the two viewpoints. A series of 64 analyses were conducted to examine whether separate novel probe facial images of target individuals whose face dimensions were already stored within the database would be correctly identified as the same person. Identification verification was found to be unreliable unless multiple distance and angular measurements from both profile and full-face images were included in an analysis.

Demirjian's system for estimating the dental age of northeastern Brazilian children

2010-04-16

Abstract: Since Demirjian's system of estimating dental maturity was first described, many researchers from different countries have tested its accuracy among diverse populations. Some of these studies have pointed out a need to determine population-specific standards. In Brazil, the Northeast region is the one that most suffers the negative impact of exodus, specially related to the increase of abandoned children in the cities. The aim of this study was to test the accuracy of Demirjian's system for assessing the dental maturity of northeastern Brazilian children, so as to present a scale for maturity score conversion into dental age developed specifically for this population. This could be used for forensic, anthropological and legal matters, and also as a model for other countries attempting to formulate their own conversion scales. Panoramic radiographs of 1,491 children (821 females and 670 males), aged 7 to 13 years, from Ceará state, northeast Brazil, were assessed by a single observer to determine dental age (DA) according to Demirjian's system. The mean percentage of intra-observer agreement was 86.6%, with a mean Cohen's Kappa coefficient of 0.67 (substantial agreement). The DA was compared by paired t-test to subjects’ chronological age (CA). The differences between CA and DA in all age groups were statistically significant (p<0.0001), demonstrating a great advancement in DA among Brazilians. Scatter plots were drawn for both genders, and the data were fitted to a growth curve, y=100/(1+e−a(x–b)). Graphs corresponding to the 50th percentile curves were produced. A table with new values for the conversion of maturity score into dental age for northeastern Brazilian children is presented. The great advancement in DA, as obtained by Demirjian's system in this population, justified the determination of specific scores for dental maturity assessment.

Sex determination using metatarsal osteometrics from the Athens collection

2010-04-30

Abstract: The determination of sex in skeletal remains performed by forensic anthropologists or bioarchaeologists typically relies on the analysis of quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the skeleton. In this regard, the most widely used features belong to the pelvic and cranial areas, but these are often not available in forensic or archaeological contexts. The objective of this study is to determine the extent of dimorphism exhibited by the metatarsal bones in order to examine their utility in the metric determination of sex in skeletal remains of Greek origin. A further objective is the development of linear discriminant function equations for sex determination based on the metatarsals from a contemporary Greek population. The skeletal sample used in this study is comprised of 1595 metatarsals (left and right), corresponding to 186 adult individuals (97 males, 89 females) and belongs to the documented collection of the University of Athens. The results suggest that metatarsal bones exhibit significant sexual dimorphism and the accuracy of the discriminant function equations for sex determination range from 80.7% to 90.1% (or 77.9–86.4% cross-validated). Thus, metatarsal bones may be used for sex determination in skeletal remains from Greece in addition to other sexing techniques.

Morphological patterns of lip prints in Saudi Arabia at Almadinah Almonawarah province

2010-05-10

Abstract: In the past decades, lip-print studies (cheiloscopy) attracted the attention of many scientists as a new tool for human identification in both civil and criminal issues. The present work aimed to study in depth the lip prints of Saudi individuals (males and females) in Almadinah Almonawarah province. It is the first chieloscopic study done on Saudi individuals. A total of 966 Saudi persons, including 13 identical twins and 19 families, were included in the study. Red or brown lip sticks, white copy papers and tissue papers were used to take the impressions of the lips by different methods. Each lip print was divided into six topographic areas, examined by magnifying hand lenses, then photographed and examined by the picture manager and fax viewer programs. A modification of the Renaud's classification 1973 was used to classify the types of grooves and the results were statistically analysed. Throughout the whole work, no identically similar lip-print pattern appeared in two subjects. Few prints (9.63% of both sexes) showed one type of grooves in all areas of the lips (12.59% of females and 5.87% of males), but two or more types of grooves were commonly seen in different areas of the print. A total of 72.67% of prints showed the same groove pattern in the upper right and upper left areas (78.89% of females and 64.79% of males), while 75.36% of the prints showed the same groove pattern in the lower right and lower left areas (74.81% of females and 76.06% of males). Nine types of grooves were recorded in Saudi lips. The groove type, horizontal with other forms, was the highest recorded (68.7% in females and 42.7% in males) followed by the complete bifurcated, complete branched, reticular, complete vertical, incomplete bifurcated, X or comma form, incomplete vertical, in descending order. The horizontal type was the least recorded one and appeared only in females. Dissimilar lip-print patterns were detected among different individuals of families. Non-identical lip-print patterns were recorded in identical twins. The present study described in detail the lip-print patterns of both males and females at Almadinah Almonawarah province and confirmed that the lip-print pattern is unique for each individual even in twins and family relatives. According to this finding, it is recommended to establish a database for all individuals in a certain locality, hoping to be a reference in civil litigations and criminal cases.

High-resolution flat-panel volumetric CT images show no correlation between human age and sagittal suture obliteration—Independent of sex

2010-05-17

Abstract: This study investigated whether digital, high-resolution CT-images of the internal human sagittal suture structure include information that enables a novel method of age at death (aad) determination. To accomplish this, coronal, flat-panel-based volumetric computed tomography (eXplore Locus Ultra scanner) images were automatically analyzed by a software implementation of an algorithm that determines user independent whether a suture is open or closed. 29,205 images of the local vicinity of the sagittal suture of 164 males and 85 females of European descent were investigated separately for both sexes. We used conditional probabilities and a χ2-test to investigate whether there is a correlation between aad and suture obliteration or not.The computer-aided analysis enables us to handle huge volumes of data that could not otherwise be analyzed within a reasonable time frame. The implemented algorithm ensured a strongly reproducible, reliable, accurate, and fast differentiation between closed and open sutures. The evaluation of various statistical parameters suggests that there is no reason to assume a correlation between age and suture closure—with equal findings for both sexes. Therefore, we conclude that determination of aad based on the evaluation of sagittal suture obliteration is not possible. This agrees well – thus unsatisfactorily – with the recent literature.

A study of limb asymmetry and its effect on estimation of stature in forensic case work

Kewal Krishan, Tanuj Kanchan, John A. DiMaggio — 2010-05-18

Abstract: Estimation of stature is an important parameter in identification of commingled, mutilated and skeletal remains in forensic examinations. Bilateral asymmetry is defined as the difference between the measurements of the left and right sides of the human body. While estimating stature from skeletal material as well as from body parts in forensic anthropology case work, asymmetry of the human body may result in erroneous estimates due to bilateral variations present in dimensions of the human body and bones. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate asymmetry in upper and lower extremity dimensions in a north Indian population and to see its effect on the estimation of stature from these dimensions. The study was based on a sample of right-handed 967 adult male Gujjars, an endogamous group of North India. Bilateral asymmetry was assessed in six limb dimensions i.e. total upper extremity length, upper arm length, forearm length, hand length, total lower extremity length and lower leg length using a paired t-test. The results indicated that statistical significant bilateral asymmetry exists in total upper extremity length, upper arm length, forearm length, total lower extremity length and lower leg length (p<0.01). Correlation coefficients of various dimensions of upper and lower extremities with stature were found to be highly significant (p<0.001). Regression equations were calculated for estimation of stature from these limb dimensions using both left and right sides. The study concludes that there is a higher possibility of obtaining erroneous results while estimating stature from those body dimensions which show statistically significant bilateral asymmetry when formula developed from one side is used on the other side. Although, there seems to be a little possibility of obtaining erroneous results while estimating stature from those body dimensions which showed statistically insignificant asymmetry, it is strongly recommended that the examiner must first identify the side to which the limb part or bone belongs to, and then apply the appropriate formula derived for that particular side.

Age- and sex-related changes in three-dimensional lip morphology

2010-05-31

Abstract: The objective of this study was to supply information about: (1) normal sex-related dimensions of mouth and lips (linear distances, ratios, angles, area, volume); and (2) growth changes between childhood and old age. The three-dimensional coordinates of several soft-tissue landmarks on the lips and face were obtained by a non-invasive, computerized electromagnetic digitizer in 532 male and 386 female healthy subjects aged 4–73 years. From the landmarks, linear distances (mouth width, width of the philtrum, vermilion heights of the upper, lower and total lips, total lip height), the vermilion height-to-mouth width ratio, areas (vermilion of the upper, lower and total lip) and volumes (upper, lower, and total lip volume) were calculated and averaged for age and sex. Comparisons were performed by factorial analysis of variance. Mouth width, width of the philtrum, total lip height, and lip volumes were significantly larger in men than in women (p<0.01), increased with age (p<0.001), and had age×sex interactions (p<0.001). Vermilion areas and heights of the lower and total lips progressively increased with age until late adolescence, and then decreased with aging (p<0.001). The vermilion height-to-mouth width ratio was larger in women than in men (p<0.001), and decreased with age (p<0.001). Data collected in the present investigation could serve as a database for the quantitative description of human lip morphology during normal growth, development and aging. Forensic applications (evaluations of traumas, craniofacial alterations, teratogenic-induced conditions, facial reconstruction, aging of living and dead persons, personal identification) may also benefit from age- and sex-based data banks.

Sudden death due to spontaneous rupture in splenic artery atypical dissection with features of vasculitis: Case report and review of the literature

Lorenzo Desinan, Cathryn Anne Scott, Iginio Piai, Gionata Maria Mazzolo — 2010-03-31

Abstract: A case of sudden death in a 45-year-old man due to splenic artery dissection and rupture diagnosed at a medico-legal autopsy is described. The examination of the splenic artery revealed macroscopically the features of a ruptured intramural haematoma (no intimal tear, no lumen dilation) and histologically the characteristics of a lymphoplasmacytic vasculitis of the vasa vasorum associated with fibrinoid degeneration. The patient died at home after having been discharged from hospital where he had presented for modest abdominal pain with no evidence of the true nature of the disease found using echography. The Authors discuss the literature relative to splenic artery dissection (13 cases of which only one diagnosed in vivo), the present case being the only one due to vasculitis of the vasa vasorum and the forensic implications (autopsy was ordered to examine the causes of death, to verify whether diagnosis could have been reached during hospitalization with consequences on the outcome and if a hypothesis of malpractice could be prospected).

Virtual and macroscopical studies of mummies—Differences or complementarity? Report of a natural frozen Siberian mummy

2010-04-20

Abstract: Since 2004, a multidisciplinary Franco-Russian expedition discovered in the Sakha Republic (Yakutiya) more than 60 tombs preserved by the permafrost. In July 2006, an exceptionally well-preserved mummy was unearthed. The coffin, burial furniture and clothes suggested a shaman's tomb. Multislice computed tomography (MSCT) was performed before autopsy with forensic and anthropological aims. Forensic study aimed to detect any lesions and determine the manner of death. Anthropological study aimed to determine the mummy's gender, age at death, morphological affinity, stature and body mass. She was female and virginity status was assessed. The radiological and forensic conclusions were compared.Imaging confirmed most autopsy findings, suggesting that death followed disseminated infection. MSCT could not formally exclude a traumatic death because close examination of the skin was difficult, but was superior to conventional autopsy in diagnosis of infectious lesions of the left sacroiliac joint and one pelvic lesion. Autopsy detected a post-infectious spinal lesion, misinterpreted on MSCT as a Schmorl's node. However, most conclusions of virtual and conventional anthropological studies agreed. Age at death was estimated around 19 years old. The morphology of the mummy was mongoloid. MSCT identified the craniometric characteristics as similar to those of the Buryat population. The deceased's stature was 146cm and estimated body mass was 49kg. MSCT demonstrated its great potential and complementarity with conventional autopsy and anthropological techniques in the study of this natural female mummy buried in 1728.

Unexpected sudden death due to intracranial chordoma: An autopsy case

2010-05-06

Abstract: Intracranial chordoma is a locally invasive, relatively rare tumour at the base of the skull. The tumour usually grows slowly but there have been several case reports of sudden death, all of which were due to tumour-associated haemorrhages. We report an autopsy case of a sudden unexpected death due to clinically undiagnosed intracranial chordoma in the brainstem without haemorrhage. A 44-year-old man was found dead at home. The autopsy revealed two small gelatinous and semi-translucent greyish tumours on the ventral surface of the brainstem between the midbrain and pons. The tumours were not attached to the dura or bone. The brain was markedly swollen, with enlarged lateral and third ventricles, but the aqueduct was compressed and narrowed. Microscopically, the tumour invaded the cerebral peduncles, and was classified as a chordoma. The cause of death was diagnosed as acute obstructive hydrocephalus due to a ventral brainstem tumour. Even a minor intracranial tumour that is not primarily life-threatening may cause sudden death due to subsequent obstructive hydrocephalus. The brainstem is one of the most vulnerable regions in the brain, and careful examination of this region is important for forensic pathologists.

Unusual appearance of Schreger-like pattern in Hippopotamus amphibius ivory: Wildlife forensics investigation of a netsuke

Margaret E. Sims — 2010-05-07

Abstract: The National Fish and Wildlife Forensics Laboratory routinely receives confiscated wildlife parts and products (including ivory) for identification purposes as part of wildlife law enforcement casework. Identification of evidentiary ivory typically involves a detailed and comprehensive visual and microscopic examination of the objects, as well as observation with ultraviolet light. Of thousands of ivory objects examined at the Lab, the author has observed unusual non-Proboscidean (elephant) objects with Schreger-like (cross-hatched) pattern. One of these objects was a small well-polished netsuke carved from a hippopotamus canine.

Fatal facial–intracranial impalement injury in an accidental fall from a height: An autopsy case report with a review of the literature

Qi Wang, Takaki Ishikawa, Tomomi Michiue, Hitoshi Maeda — 2010-05-07

Abstract: Impalement injury to the face and head is of clinical and forensic pathological significance because of its diagnostic pitfalls. This injury often penetrates the orbital, nasal or oral cavity into the skull, but impaling other sites of facial bone is rare. The present case was a rare type of facial–intracranial impalement injury with a direct cerebral arterial laceration. The victim was a 44-year-old man who fell from a height of about 2.5m onto a broken chair and died 6 days later despite surgical treatment. The clinical diagnosis was a ‘small abrasion’ of the face and ‘traumatic intracerebral hemorrhage with intraventicular and subarachnoid hemorrhages’ on computed tomography (CT). At autopsy, a small crescent laceration was seen below the right zygomatic region. Intracranial lesions comprised a perforating skull-base fracture, a subarachnoid hemorrhage with laceration of the posterior communication artery, and a massive intraventricular hematoma that involved cerebral injury connected with the skull-base fracture, which were consistent with penetration by a steel tube from the chair. A review of the literature suggested that such severe intracranial–facial impalement injuries are caused by traffic accidents or falls, and the prognosis was poor due to an injury around the brainstem despite an appropriate clinical diagnosis. Furthermore, the present case suggested the difficulty of clinical diagnosis even using CT; thus, a forensic autopsy was necessary to determine the manner and cause of death.

Tooth aspiration: Its relevance in medicolegal autopsies

H. Nadjem, S. Pollak, W. Windisch, M. Große Perdekamp, A. Thierauf — 2010-05-06

Abstract: Tooth aspiration in adulthood is an uncommon autopsy finding. The paper presents two cases in which maxillary incisors had been avulsed and inhaled during hospital treatment and in the course of maxillofacial trauma, respectively. In the first case, repeated attempts to remove the aspirated tooth by means of flexible bronchoscopy led to perforation of the bronchial wall with consecutive bleeding into the deep airways and fatal asphyxia. In the second case, the fact of tooth aspiration remained undetected throughout the 3-day survival time until death from craniocerebral trauma. The paper points out the forensic aspects of tooth aspiration against the background of the relevant clinical literature.