Head injuries of Roman gladiators
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Fig. 1
Gladiator types and combatant pairings most common in the 2nd and 3rd centuries. Their protective gear and the specific weapons are shown according to Junkelmann [2] . Offensive metal weapons: pilum administrated by EQU, sica by THR, hasta by HOP, fuscina by RET and the gladius used from all of them except the THR.
Fig. 2
Postmortem (PM) defects produced during excavation found on the gladiator cranial vaults; /o, view on the outer table; /i, view on inner table; scale bar = 10 mm. PM01 and PM02 produced by zoning nails (Ø 9 mm) PM01 specimen buried in wet soil, PM02 specimen buried in dry soil. PM03 produced by a range pole (Ø 22 mm) specimen buried in wet soil. PM04 produced by masonry trowel, PM05 by a shovel and PM06 by the under side of a plastic storage box.
Fig. 3
Summarized location and distribution of antemortem (upper half; A01–A16) and perimortem (lower half; P01–P10) injuries found on the gladiator crania.
Fig. 4
Typical antemortem (A) defects found on the gladiator crania; /o, view on the outer table; /i, view on inner table; scale bar = 10 mm. A02 well healed blunt force trauma on the right frontal bone, produced several years before death. A03 blunt force trauma on the left margo supraorbitalis most probably caused by repeated blows on the helmet. A08 sharp force trauma on the frontal bone most probably caused by a cut with a gladius. Below histological cross-section of A08, 1st microradiograph, 2nd light microscopy and 3rd microscopic view using polarized light. Note compressed bony structure marked with arrows. A15a + b sharp force trauma one frontal bone most probably caused by a trident. Below A15a sagittal histological cross-sections and microradiograph. Note that the inner table was not affected.
Fig. 5
Typical perimortem (P) defects found on the gladiator crania; /o, view on the outer table; /i, view on inner table; /in, imprinted bone; white scale bar = 10 mm. P03 massive blunt force trauma with concentric fracture line. P08 and P09 singular punctured sharp force trauma on the parietal bone, most probably caused a hammerhead as seen in left lower corner. P10a + b double punctured sharp force trauma on the right parietal and frontal bone, most probably caused by a trident as it could be seen in the right lower corner. Note that the distance between the two trauma is identical as between the two prongs of the trident. The raged appearance of P10a indicates That the middle spike of the used trident was barbed.
Abstract
Gladiator remains from a recently unearthed cemetery in ancient Ephesus (Turkey) offer a unique opportunity for proving common theories involving the weaponry and techniques of gladiator fighting based on the evidence supplied by cranial bones. This mass grave is the first of its kind to undergo a thorough osteological and forensic examination.
A minimum number of individuals (MNI) analyses revealed that at least 68 individuals. All individuals found turned out to have been males aged between 20 and 30 years, except for one female associated with a female slave gravestone, and one male aged 45–55 years, had been buried in this area of the cemetery. The male mean body height was 168 cm (S.D. = 5 cm), which lies inside the normal range of height for Roman populations at those times.
Eleven (16% of MNI) individuals exhibit a total of 16 well-healed antemortal cranial traumata. Five of the 11 individuals showed multiple trauma. Ten (15% of MNI) individuals exhibited a total of 10 perimortal cranial traumata. This is a surprisingly high frequency of deadly head injuries, taking into account that most of the gladiator types wore helmets. A possible explanation could be the frequently reported deathblow technique used by the hammer-carrying death god “Dis Pater”.
The gladiator weaponry is well known through historical sources. At least one injury per known type of offensive weapon could be identified, as well as evidence for the most popular, the gladiator trident, which was found to be represented by one perimortem and two antemortem injuries. Overall the reportedly very strict nature of combat rules for gladiator fights could be confirmed by the absence of multiple perimortal traumatized individuals, showing a lack of the excessive violence commonly observed on medieval battle ground victims.
This graveyard gives the opportunity to confirm historical aspects and to check the reliability of forensic methods for identification of antemortem, perimortem, or postmortem bone lesions. Typical examples for these kinds of lesions and injuries are presented. The colour of the margins of the traumata proved to be the most distinguishing feature for postmortal lesions.
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